Historically religion has played a major role in both gradual changes and sudden upheavals. In C20 arguably most important forces were capitalism, communism and nationalism. And, according to conventional sociological theory, religion is not just rejected ideologically but functionally superfluous.
But note Iran 1979, gradual change in other Islamic countries; part played in 1989-90 in eastern Europe. Words and symbols become crucial - e.g. human rights
262-3 Examining the role of religion as a form of social communication under conditions of globalisation.
Attempt to assess broad global context in which religious organisations and mobilisation operate. Macro-sociological analysis of inner-organisational dynamics that have led to institutional shifts and large socio-structural and cultural forces that encourage these shifts.
264/5 Globalisation as consequence of modernisation - world capitalist system, and system of sovereign states are key. Also important other communication systems - scientific-technological system, health system, education system. Always locally differentiated, including in West. Increase in individual autonomy but also in impersonality of systems. Also instrumental orientation of systems, linked to ideas of progress, efficiency, etc. Totalising but not all-encompassing, e.g. everything has its price but not everything has been commoditised. Links to ideas central to my way of thinking of hegemony, meaning dominance within a contested and hence always shifting system
Values linked to globalisation express, but don't determine, identity. Freedom, equality, fraternity. Fraternity in modernism expressed through nationhood. Global system produces great inequalities, and also pressurises nationhood - so has built into it contradiction between systemic effects and systemic values.
In global context, can religion be functionally oriented subsystem - per secularisation thesis. Challenge of structuring religious communication in dichotomy similar to other systems e.g. economics is owning/ not owning. Health is well/ not well. Religion has immanence/transcendence. Trouble with this definition is transcendence includes immanence - not expressed as x/not x, but as x/y. I see immanence as "This rock is a rock. That's it." Transcendence says "This rock is indeed a rock, but it also signifies the care and effort of the creator. Thus religion can be applied to everything. And it deals with the overall conditions for the possibility of any type of communication.
270 Before functionally specialised systems arose, religion was needed for all, e.g. ritual to ensure good harvest, successful military campaign etc. Now systems include own justifications, religion displaced, marginalised or privatised in most areas. Many strategies adopted in response - resistance, accommodation, etc. Religion as mode of communication centring on immanence/transcendence, must be studied with modern means. The core challenge for religion in modernity is that its way of relating to the world is too broadly based to allow the sort of instrumental specialisation typical of functional subsystems like economy, polity or science. It is precisely the highly selective nature of the specialisations that makes these systems so effective... Religion cannot follow suit... The challenge for religion is to turn this circumstance to its advantage.
Holistic starting point for religion points to pious public platitudes but also to other possibilities e.g. particularistic, usually politicised fundamentalisms, and also to liberal religion that seeks to address the severe problems engendered by the global system, but on the basis of the prevailing global values and not in opposition to them.
273 within meaning of immanence religion includes all matters of other subsystems, plus issues like meaning and thematisation of the social whole, private sphere, life-world, in principle both totalising and all-encompassing. Typically seen as anti-systemic, because addresses problems the subsystems fail to, but this does not necessarily mean being against the dominant structures and values of emerging global society. Given tension noted earlier between systems' effects and values, any reaction can be both anti- and pro-systemic simultaneously. In fact we should expect the emergence of a religious system that sees among its central tasks anti-systemic action based on pro-systemic values.
273/4 anti-systemic movements are not necessarily religious. But there is an affinity because of affinity between religious holism and residual matters. calls this "virtually religious".
Environmental issues concretise problematic effects of global system more than any other. Unintended and unforeseen are indicators of necessity and reality of transcendence. Religion gives these meaning and promises power to overcome them. 275 one might speak of mutual fructification as secular environmentalists adapt religious language to conceptualise their concerns, while representatives of various religions highlight or even refashion those elements of their traditions that seem to resonate with secular environmental concern.
276 holism of environmental concern echoes holism of religious communication.
Peace and justice have been key terms in religion, especially western, for some time - peace implies existence of global community, justice the relations in which people must live in order to achieve that. Both include assertion that injustices are significantly result of operation of globalising instrumental systems. Global environmental issues then are religiously logical complement to the peace/justice pair. Note however tension between peace/justice and environment: often action to secure justice e.g. by raising living standards has detrimental environmental effect, and vice versa. So most prescriptions call for change of heart, metanoia Beyer does couch most of this in Christian language
279 Gregorios' use of LGPs "Limits to Growth People" and TOPs "Technological Optimism People". More LGPs around in liberal religion.
280 religion cannot do anything direct about environmental problems I don't follow his logic here - the answers must be political, educational etc.
3 one major social transformation is in role of women in religion - religion has been mostly reactive. But has it been any more reactive than any other social institution. There's still along way to go towards gender equality in most spheres.
Gap between world in which sacred texts were written and world of today - filled by hermeneutics. Mormon a good example - world of C19 USA very different from today. But more contemporary evidence exists - does this diminish the role of hermeneutics?
4 on objectification of natural and social worlds. Conflicts with other value systems at various points. says religions can't say anything direct about the environment; solutions have to be political, educational, scientific, economic and medical.
5 para on internal diversity of religious responses.
6 Buddhist rejection of instrumentality; Islamic rejection of core global values (i.e. western) shows range of responses is available. claims they provide alternative perspectives./
7 Question - is religion still relevant?
Impact of antireligious ideologies on religion e.g. communism - attacked but communism itself failed, so creating new roles for religion.
Religions have become functionalised, dealing with "residual problems" depends how you define residual. Childcare for women workers in a globalised world is an integral part of the system.. Also very adaptable; changed and diversified. Emerging pattern is less of decline and irrelevance than of adaptation and transformation. It's difficult to talk about religion's role in social transformation as religion itself is affected and transformed by social changes.
A definition borrowed from Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry Religion - An organized system of belief that generally seeks to understand purpose, meaning, goals, and methods of spiritual things. These spiritual things can be God, people in relation to God, salvation, after life, purpose of life, order of the cosmos, etc.
Poland - "national church" model - contemporary pluralism challenges this at both practical and ideological levels. East Germany "prophetic minority" role - now faces intense difficulty - competition with other oppositional groups, and dealing with its history of compromises with the communist regime.
17 Matthew 10.42 and Romans 13.1 - tension re how to view authorities. Pax Romana built on use of force. Jesus did not accept it but neither did he seek to confront it. "Kingdom of God" - meaning is unclear, but can be taken as alternative rule - and therefore at least implicitly a threat to the ruling authorities.
Romans passage has been taken to legitimise authorities regardless of behaviour. But e.g. 1 Thess 5.3 describes those who see present order as one of peace as "in darkness". Relations between Christians and authorities is disputed, so subsequent generations could draw different conclusions.
Under Constantine new relationship became necessary - texts supportive of state became favoured.
19 Between the two paths of co-option and confrontation, Christian churches in majority situations have faced the task of negotiating some kind of critical solidarity with the state and with modern development of national identity. and with global identity - RC, C of E, Islam
For churches in central eastern Europe arguments over meaning of sacred texts have had little direct impact.
22 1655 Jasna Gora monastery with Black Madonna halted Swedish advance. Hence importance of Black Madonna. 1772-1918 lost statehood.
23 The Polish national movement had the longest pedigree, the best credentials, the greatest determination, the worst press, and the least success... precocious brand of nationalism... at heart this had little to do with economic rationale, everything with the will to preserve culture, identity and honour.
Loss of Jewish population and change of boundaries by Stalin after ww2 created almost ethnically and religiously pure Poland - 95% RC.
Communist strategy was to repress and divide the church. Cardinal Wyszynski concentrated on building authority within the church and appealing to people in symbolic representation. Devised ten year run up to celebration of millennium of Polish nationhood and conversion to Christianity 1966. Celebrated mass in prison 26th August 1956 with a million pilgrims outside. Strike by workers in Poznan followed by demonstrations (brutally met by authorities) in which demands included freedom for Wyszynski.
Religious nationalism fuelled by [Wyszynski's synthesis of] Polish legends, folklore, and peasant mysticism with the intellectual products of the Polish Romantic poets, and elements of Catholic theology to create a Mariological vision of the nation and Polish history.
Feature of contemporary religion - its ability to survive and include institutional structure - but note how different eg Buddhism is from e.g. RC - and ability to live in minds of adherents. Must also include flexibility
Polish Catholicism presented in this chapter as a cultural frame, but can be seen as a political challenge - fuses church with nation.
Expansion of parish social networks. 2nd Vatican Council endorsed sacred significance of secular activity, giving rise to new forms of political activism and of political and liberation theology. In Poland expansion of clubs and student centres, and press; day care for children; pharmacies. Provided infrastructure, symbolism and vocabulary for Solidarity.
German speaking tribes converted to Christianity in end C8 start C9. Medieval Hanseatic League - spirit of local autonomy - played part in resistance to papal authority in C16 reformation.
Anabaptists - creating own community
Calvin - right in some circumstances to overthrow rulers.
Luther - much more influential. Direct link between people and God - "sola scriptura". But not in political sphere - actually supported crushing of Peasants' Revolt of 1525; developed doctrine of two kingdoms.
1648 Treaty of Westphalia - "cuius regio eius religio" - who holds the territory decides the religion.
30-1 Nazification brought diverse responses. Majority of EKD supported state; although idea emerged of "society" distinct from church or state, as category of social significance. Martin Niemoller led breakaway which formed Bekennende Kirche - included Barth and Bonhoeffer. Barth - army chaplain WW1 - stood against religion supporting state. Bonhoeffer went further - church needs to be actively involved with other groups. EKD did not act till Nazis prohibited ordination of clergy descended from Jews, i.e. till its own interests were directly threatened. Bonhoeffer's approach was different - led to his participation in plot to kill Hitler and eventual execution.
Postwar RC church denied tendency to accommodate; EKD, with its leadership disgraced because of their more publicly known compromises, took a more radical line "Stuttgart confession of guilt" October 1945, marked beginning of...
1949-78 state sought to undermine church and secure monopoly on public life. 1950-55 severest repression. But, 1953, facing opposition from other groups, e.g. workers' strikes, loosened grip and tried to compete e.g. with youth groups. 1956 stopped collecting church tax; 1958 banned religious instruction in schools the fact that it took so long to get round to doing these things says something about the relative power of church and state 1968, relations with churches in West Germany banned. Church began accepting idea of "church in socialism". 1978 restrictions on churches eased - seen as less threatening than some other movements. But church led protests against introduction/ expansion of military training in schools. But at the same time some were collaborating with Stasi. Late 80s protests grew stronger, state tried to muscle in, but backed down. Churches had critical role in round table talks that established democracy after the fall of the wall. 21 pastors won seats in the 1990 elections.
Christianity, Communism, freedom - three ideas intertwined. Piece written in sadness "feeling of emptiness".
Similarities: both totalising/totalitarian; utopian - and prey to doubt. Communism as parody of Christianity; but Tischner compares transcendent dimension of Christianity with immanent dimension of Communism.
Christianity as struggle between Manicheism and idea of grace. Seen as catechism versus gospel. Possibility of accepting ethos without accepting logos - good Samaritan - accepting dissidents as allies.
Issue of man as individual versus man as part of community, belonging in some sense to the community, problem of e.g. national community without xenophobia.
The church's real power is other-worldly; the church's this-worldly power undermines that.
Post 1989 Polish church immediately looked out of touch - concerned with tightening abortion laws, and not having anything to say about new poverty. Also difficulties with attitude to ethnic and religious minorities. East Germany, loss of funding from West German churches, revelations over collaboration.
40-1 Ombudsman for Citizens' Rights 1990/1992 challenged setting up of religious education in schools by RC. OCR, in its activities, exposed debate about nature of democracy in poland - majoritarian or constitutional. Constitution continued to develop till full new constitution in 1997.
1993 abortion laws tightened and medical profession tightened its own regulations still further. Poland not becoming a quasi-religious state but church determined to maintain its line on some (limited) issues, e.g. religious instruction, abortion. Church paid price - approval ratings slumped from 87% in 1989 to 41% in 1993. Polls showed disputes with OCR played part.
46 Much overt anti-Semitism in Poland, but tempered by belief that Jews should be better understood. Also negative attitudes to NRMs. Tensions with Ukrainians (pp47-8) breaking down of national frontiers and the arrival of a democratic political system has not liberalized culture, but rather "unleash[ed] forces that exaggerate and strengthen national and confessional barriers"
Church good at mobilising at symbolic level - has difficulty translating this into practical politics.
At the Wende, different leaders had different strategies - some directly entered elections, others held back, calling for democratisation of the church that would draw on insights of alternative groups.
196 significant role of Wolfgang Ullman (early church fathers, Radical Reformation, led to commitment to alternative politics )and Richard Schroder (Greeks as interpreted by Arendt, commitment to politics as matter of rational debate, depending ons table institutions and popular participation).
Nov 1989 fear of economic collapse, civil war. Only churches were respected. Ullman played crucial part in bringing Round Table together. Government joined in, and it effectively became government in Jan 1990. Dissolved 12 Mar, elections 18 Mar. Worked on principles of equality and consensus. Small enough to allow intimacy between partners. On unification Ullman sought to pursue these ideas to address problems of west - alienation, apathy. Saw power and justice in terms of equality rather than hierarchy and saw this as being ultimately realised in the church. Argued against overly individualistic understanding of rights: people should exercise rights for not against each other; which people will actually do only when they know each other, all depends on decentralisation.
Schroder sees public/private split. Politics is public, deals in compromise, the possible rather than the ideal, justice rather than love. Criticised Round Table emphasis on consensus as making it less able to confront government. Called for recovery of forms of binding community - people would acquire sense of right and wrong, and skills of arguing perhaps believing these lost in decades of communist rule, but also suggesting idea of perfectibility of human race.
Issues
210 The role of theologians is also remarkable in light of the vulnerability of new democratic regimes to reactionary expressions of primal identities, that is, to new fundamentalisms of nation. ethnicity ad religion. Analysis of the East German situation affirms that religious institutions and ideals can support, as well as impede, democratisation.
50 EG churches less symbolic identification with nation than Poland, a) because identification with West Germany would not have been allowed and b) nationalism was regarded with suspicion because of experience of Nazism. Protestant character - opposed to hierarchy, advocacy of radical democratic forms. Unification a major issue. And happened quickly so state formation ceased to be relevant. Process of unification dominated by larger wealthier western institutions which had not lost credibility. EG churches thought they had something to bring - democratic methods and social relevance - but ended up disappointed and disillusioned. Western funding has been kept secret for fear of state action, so their pride in paying their own way proved an illusion. Also opening of Stasi files showed level of collaboration and compromise - though much in files misleading due to Stasi needing to prove they were doing their job.
Vergangenheitsbewaltigung - coming to terms with the past - had both political and moral aspects. Churches faced rapid decline in both membership and trust.
56 Role of churches in transition has tended to be neglected as a causal factor in analysis of political process -even in Poland. Those who do consider it tend to treat it as abstract belief system or in terms of episcopal decisions rather than as a set of social networks. Churches contributed by:
59 EG citizens began to move away from church immediately, and well before Stasi files were opened. Studies in Brazil and USA suggest church need not decline; note possible emergence of right wing forms in Poland.
Antisemitism Worldwide 2001/2 on Poland
Rydzyk and Radio Maria very very nasty. And their connection with Self Defence
More about Radio Maria, including a short history
Historical, socio-economic, cultural, religious and philosophical factors need to be taken into account. Why not political?
Historical - first issue is colonialism. Post-colonial nations mobilised around nationalist and socialist ideologies which failed to meet expectations. Defeat in 1967 war led to disillusionment with secular solutions and turn to Islam as alternative source of inspiration.
Socio-economic - modernisation - urbanisation, industrialisation, new attitudes to sexual relations, division of labour, western culture./p>
Cultural - modern communications a) enable networks to stay more in touch and transmit culture, but b) enable invasion of western culture.
Religious - turn to Islam includes sharia and use of hadith.
Philosophical - what is relation between human rights and culture? Can we assume human rights are universal? Human rights and Islam - clash of two universalising systems.
69 It will be argued that while it is difficult to demonstrate the universality of human rights in the full modern sense, all cultures produce ethical norms that, given appropriate conditions, can be developed to support human rights. It will be further argued that global conditions justify such developments. In particular, the transformation of the world into a system of states connected by various global networks, and the transformation of traditional communities into societies of anonymous strangers, have created both modern individuals and a series of threats to them, and hence the need for human rights to defend individuals from these threats.
70 Islamic knowledge of human nature and law depends on being revelation from God. UDHR depends on not being revelation from God.
72/3 Status of sharia - "way" or "watering hole" - should its enforcement be matter of law or of individual conscience. 73 ? clash of civilisations ?
Ijtihad - intellectual struggle - i.e. continuing effort to understand and interpret the teaching of Islam.
Qiyas - reasoning by analogy. First caliphs had power to develop teaching of Muhammad, then ulama - religious scholars. 74 ..jurisprudence has now been extracted from its historical and political context, and endowed with everlasting, essentialist qualities. The point is thus overlooked that this jurisprudence was in the first place a human improvisation meant to address certain political and social issues in a certain historical, geographical and social context.
Many believe traditional limitations on new interpretations should be lifted.
Istahsan - deeming preferable - involves recognising fundamental purpose of a law - e.g. traditionally oral testimony thought best - now photographs, DNA etc accepted, as fundamental intention of law was to use most reliable form of evidence available.
Concept of doubt - shuhha - encompasses both evidence and mitigating circumstances.
76 local judges have much discretion - which is used, shows, with a distinctive legal rationality. All these sources of flexibility show sharia is not monolithic.
79 King Fahd quoted as saying Islam is complete system of social and economic laws. Despite Koran and hadiths saying nothing about political system.
Fahd's argument "particularistic". regards this is "fallacy of origin". suggests globalisation makes conditions similar for everyone, therefore similar solutions, i.e. global application of human rights theory, can apply. Others argue Quran already protects people's rights (assimilationist). E.g. Rafsanjani says minorities have many rights same as Islam - but not quite so - they are dealt with as protected but inferior - and if not recognised e.g. Bahais, can be persecuted.
"Appropriation" argues Islamic law incorporates human rights and is superior to west e.g. 1990 Cairo Declaration of Human Rights. notes it substitutes "dignity" for "rights and freedoms", hence specifies no entitlements. Concept of rights as prior to and independent of responsibilities./p>
82/3 liberal Muslims - "harmonising", or "confrontationalist".
83/4 Al-Na'im argues Meccan suras should take precedence over Medinan (reversal of normal priority); Medinan are situation specific as Muhammad sought to lay down rules for living *under the conditions of the time*.
84 Merad suggests radicalising istihsan - to discern divine intention beyond letter of law.
Tunisian reformer Talbi attempts to distinguish Quran from sunna, saying sunna, for historical reasons, does not always reflect the Quran. Mernissi adopts similar approach. 84 Such approaches demonstrate that Muslim scholars are attempting to construct forms of Islamic practice which are compatible with principles of human rights... I think rather that they are attempting to develop forms of Islam which are relevant to the modern age - this may by coincidence mean that they are compatible with human rights discourse, but that is a by product..
85 In Tunisia, as elsewhere in the Muslim-majority Middle East, human rights discourse is used by all three main groups competing in public space: the state; opposition groups including political Islamist groups; and non-governmental organisations... including human rights organisations..., women's groups and social Islamist groups. State attempts to control all opposition.
Mobilisation of human rights discourse happened in response to government oppression, rather than to Islamic violence, though that has also had an impact. Most regimes claim to be Islamic, but roots lie in secular nationalist independence movements. Also most regimes adopt discourse of human rights, but don't want to tackle underlying problems of reconciling the two, so adopt fudge.
Official Islamic human rights schemes, says, accord priority to rationalising government repression. Islamic adoption of such language can also be seen as self interested, but not all are cynical. Islamist groups can organise democratically.
Tunisia only state in ME close to harmonious relationship between Islam and human rights.
1956 independence - reform of Personal Status Code - laws approach personal equlaity on Islamic basis (but inheritance and male guardianship fo children unchallenged). Strong independent trade union movement. Relative absence of military from public life has limited intrusion of state into public life.
Arguably, as a result, islamic movement is more liberal than elsewhere. But has experienced repression. 1981 MTI repressed after applying successfully to be political party. (Renamed Nadha around 1989) 1989 election won 17% vote - threat to government - more repession. Reaction - issued joint statement with secular parties; co-operated with Amnesty. 1986 accepted PSC, but previously had argued against e.g. woman's right to marry non-Muslim. At best assimilationist or liberal harmonising. Herbert treats this as if human rights is an unarguable good, and Islamists are deficient for not taking it on board lock stock and barrel.
Note from US State Dept Dec 2004 The Islamist opposition party, An-Nadha, was allowed to operate openly in the late 1980s and early 1990s despite a ban on religiously based parties. The government outlawed An-Nadha as a terrorist organization in 1991 and arrested its leaders and thousands of party members and sympathizers, accusing them of plotting to overthrow the President. The party is no longer openly active in Tunisia, and its leaders operate from exile in London. There are several pro-democracy activists who have been denied permission to establish other opposition political parties. I find the same wording in a Washington Institute report - I wonder who is copying from whom, and about the alleged independence of the Institute.
88 The Progressive Islamists are exceptional in accepting that the concept of human rights is not contained in the Koran and the Sunna and that the principles of human rights are part of the universal humanism of our time, which must be incorporated into the Islamic world-view. But I'd say it is in the Koran - at least as much as it is in the Bible - so it depends on your interpretation. certainly thinks this way.
89 LTDH founded 1977, broad appeal across spectrum, including Islamic. Difficulties with politicisation; because institutions so weak, LTDH called into action to defend general freedoms e.g. trade union movement. Project to build social consensus on human rights - produced a charter - can be seen as attempt at cultural legitimisation. Three areas of dispute - right to change religion; right of women to marry non-Muslims; rights of illegitimate children.
Apostasy traditionally punishable by death (and is still in Egyptian law, though execution not used since 1980s). But Quran states "there is no compulsion in religion". 92-6 detailed account of debates within LTDH over wording of various clauses. 96 represented UDHR as not Western but as compromise between world's greatest civilisations. Preamble adopted idea of contribution of Arab Muslim civilisation. LTDH accepted differentiation between legal and theological competence.
To a Muslim punishment may be rational (avoids heavier punishment from God later). In modern world enforcement of law is job of state, which claims monopoly of violence. But many states are perpetrators - hence need for human rights.
"Cultural legitimacy" - respect for and acceptance of concept of human rights within a cultural system.
One argument denies role of culture, because of charge of moral relativism.
Liberal thought - definition:
Began C17 with need for for public order independent of religion
103 positivist - as agreed by states etc; naturalist - based on indisputable values. points out language of rights not known till C15.
Basic biological needs - universal.
105 Social needs - deriving from social system arguably not universal. 105/6 examines connection between rights and responsibilities. Older societies have networks of mutual responsibility. Obligations are reciprocal but not necessarily similar, e.g. man has duty to provide for wife, woman has duty to obey. Modern concept is all have same rights and obligations, and rights are independent of and prior to obligations.
Question: why should non-Western cultures accept western concept of rights when west has brought them so much negative. Answer - globalisation: new set of threats to both society and individual - human rights a moral language particularly suited to cope with this threat. Suited to world of strangers in which traditionally based forms of mutual obligation struggle to retain their binding force. Note this changes meaning of universal from "absolute" to "found everywhere" - but being absed on observation, this is only as good as the observation. Some argue that cultural systems have become more diverse and fragmented - .
115 Feminism is the truly revolutionary movement of the twentieth century, because it cannot be reconciled with Western religion.
For first few generations of a new religious movement women play a prominent role - Islam, Methodism - but then conservatism and consolidation take place of innovation and charisma, typically accompanied by ideology of gender difference.
117 general move among anthropologists towards importance of lived experience - in which women play full role. Feminism is not a monolith. It is variable, contested, and continues to evolve. Western feminism is quite different in many respects from thef eminisms evolving in other parts of the world. Thus the flowering of models may be a useful reminder that over-generalisation is a real intellectual danger in discussions of feminism internationally, but that attempting to find structural similarities may help us to understand the range of positions currently available.
Background re gender:
118 formulation of feminism the conviction that women really do inhabit the human realm and are not "other", not a separate species. Wish to eliminate patriarchy, or androcentrism: three aspects:
First wave feminism, developing from antislavery movement and assisted in the religious field by general move to see scriptures as culturally limited.
121 gender reflected in both social stucture and religious understanding - can be difficult to determine where the boundary is. I struggle with the precise nature of religion as a social force. I started thinking it is not a social force in the same way as class, space, globalisation, etc. But if it is not, then what is it? Perhaps it is a social force but simply a weaker one. That might be tenable if you look at its basis. Referring back to the definition of religion entered above the basis for this force is the supernatural, to which we have less obvious connection than the physical. E.g. class is embedded in relation to the means of production, gender to the human body, space to geography, all of which are clearly physically present, but religion to the supernatural which might or might not be there. Thus it has a weaker basis than the others. Looking at it historically, religion has consistently been used successfully to maintain the status quo with regard to class, gender, and space. It is equally used as a rallying point for challenges to those dominances - but by groupings which are not naturally held together by religion viz Poland and East Germany religions lost their unifying force when the common enemy went away. So it is a social force, but of a weaker kind than the three which I conceive to be the most important.
Tripolar model: women nature/ men culture; women's labour - child care etc - subordinate; men control dominatn public sphere, women relegated to private. Many traditions follow nature/ culture divide - women connected to nature - low, birth, dark. Some, e.g. greens, beginning to subvert/ reverse this dichotomy.
focussing on Islam sees 3 strands of thought:
post Christian theologian, thinks Christianity hostile to women. 124 Conservative response allows what is essentially normative for the religion to reside in the past.
125 identifies three types of bridge builders, i.e. bridges between past and present:
Some argue mono- poly-theistic split, mono more oppressive to women; but this is a dodgy generalisation, doesn't fit all situations. Also Gross warns against western tendency to see difference as hierarchical.
126 Women's religious choice often constrained e.g. Sunni Moslem women in rural Egypt 1983/4 unveiled; 1990 many veiled, at wishes of male relative, of whom they had to take notice because of (potential) economic dependency. suggests four dominant modes:
128 Hinduism - "revivalists" claim return to core teachings of Huinduism will improve woemen's role.
129 "Process theology" we do not think ourselves into new ways of acting; we act ourselves into new ways of thinking. The other major focus is on reform of liturgy and language.
130 The 3 major monotheistic religions portray God in masculine language. Demands for inclusive language; often met by strong resistance from traditionalists. Some see such demands as originating from secular feminists.
132 Arguments agaisnt feminist reinterpretations in four types
on Judaism and feminism. C of E - St Hilda's. RC - Womenchurch. American hispanic women call selves "mujerista" - see selves not as individuals, but as members of community.
134 very important statement all theologies are coloured by the cultural contexts: in the case of much of Asia, the women and men studying religion work within a recent and lived history of colonisation, neo-colonialism, poverty, militarism, dictatorship and racism as well as the experience of deeply patriarchal societies. Liberation theology, theology from beneath, urges us to "read the bible with the eyes of the poor". Feminist theologians are beginning to question whether this is possible: "We have to try to read with our eyes in fact - the eys of dominant people who are intensely aware of the poor and of our relationship to them..."
135 "revolutionaries" see even core teachings as so contaminated by sexism and patriarchy that they cannot be cleansed.
136 1996 - prepatriarchal hypothesis - N>B> does not assume matriarchy. Hypothesis accounts for disappearance of these cultures in terms of violent overthrow by patriarchal societies (though some suggest gradual decline in power and status of goddesses). Ancient Israel only foundign religion to absolutely reject goddesses. Feminine forms have to be subsumed into masculine. Some argue these re-emerge in Christianity in RC worship of Mary, and in feminine form of Holy Spirit.
138 Hermeneutics - what text meant and what it means. whereas the exegesis of a text is concerned with a relatively fixed point in the past - what the author meant and how the original readers are likely to have understood it - its application moves us into an area of uncomfortable flexibility. Difference e.g. both OT and NT clearly accepted slavery as an institution. - we cannot assume understanding is automatic. Two dimensions of interpretation - grammatical and psychological - equally important. Text can never be understood totally. 140 Hermeneutic circle - in the circle two moves are essential - examination of text's internal structure and relation to other similar texts. We cannot read neutrally. Theology is not a unviersal language; it is an interested language and thus is always a refelctin of the goals and apsirations of a particular people in a definite social setting.
141 Many religions view sacred text as sacred law. Hermeneutics tries to see how text adds to understanding of divine presence in world. Theological interpretations have direct social consequences. Feminists have difficulty finding positive portrayals of women in ancient texts; hermeneutics therefore important. Feminism widely considered one of most important developments of modern theology. But many insist on *unchanging* nature of authority of text.
142 3 strands of feminist hermeneutics:
145 difficult to categorise - stats with women's experience and dual nature of bible as both oppressive and liberating - calls for hermeneutics of suspicion; of proclamation; of remembrance and reconstruction; of ritualisation and celebration.
155 modern environmental consciousness a quasi religious doctrine of the western type - . - environmental crisis virtually religious.
156 Religious environmentalism first appeared late 1960s, became broadly popular late 80s so did every other kind of environmentalism Common stereotype eastern religions promote nature/humanity harmony and western religions promote division. suggests this to do with dualisms.
157/8 Issue for all religions is relating original text to modern environmental conditions.
159 claims religion provides organisational, ideological and institutional basis for action. Liberal, reductionist view - reduces religion to scial structure, denying religious practices their claim to transformatory power. We examine flexibility of boundary between religious and non-religious practices.
159-60 Religions interested in showing how they are fitted to deal with environmental problems. According to environmentalism is public-influence-oriented liberal religion in a global context.
Contrast who argues for change of awareness.
says three approaches - eco-spiritualism, eco-justice and eco-traditionalism.
Fitting environmentalism to Buddhism not a straightforward process, in fact controversial. Buddhist values can hinder environmentalism.
five fold typology of Buddhist reactions:
176 illustrates problem with hermeneutics - Religions, like all social forms, change: old forms decline; new ones arise. It is therefore theoretically inappropriate to research the latter using the historical standards of the former. To interrogate the scriptures for guidance on new problems is to constantly rediscover and renew them, and in so doing to deepen one's insight into their meaning. Compares it to a jigsaw, but comments that with this jigsaw nobody has the picture on the front of the box to compare their efforts with.
178/9 on impermanence; false hope vs acceptance.
180 Ajahn Pasanno preserves forests so that there can be forest monks, not for their intrinsic or environmental value.