Well institutionalised civil religion, clearly differentiated from the churches.
Christ not mentioned in inaugural addresses: God is, but rarely called God.
Collection of beliefs, symbols and rituals with response to sacred things and institutionalised in a collectivity. Not sectarian - not in any specific sense Christian, but also not a substitute. Up to Civil War was focussed on revolution - seen as final act of Exodus. Civil War brought new themes of death, sacrifice and rebirth.
14 idea of nation standing under a higher judgement, linked to Thoreau I would remind my countrymen that they are men first and Americans at a late and convenient hour
Speculates on idea of a world civil religion which I think very unlikely because it seems to me at the moment to be inextricably linked with nation
Some other issues and ideas - Springsteen's language - promised land etc; Saving Private Ryan - cemetery scenes topping and tailing the film; all the graves marked with crosses except for the few Stars of David; Lincoln's letter.
Gettysburg sacred site of American civil religion. Sacred texts, places, rituals, martyrs.
"Civil religion" from Rousseau Social Contract 1762. Also draws on de Tocqueville's observation of Americans' almost mystical understanding of themselves. From Durkheim idea that any human group may possess a religious dimension. Herberg 1955 on how immigrants come to share collective commitment. The debate that followed identified two versions:
Bellah eventually withdrew from debate, partly frustr5ationat constantly rebuffing those who saw it as idolatrous worship of state; noting his original article argued that civil religion required opposition to Vietnam War not support of it.
five fold definition
US and UK civil religion to be examined here - both national, modern, anglo-saxon, and protestant - emerged C18. Also Sienese - local, Latin, catholic, medieval - issue of continuity as meaning of city changed after C16, and as church reasserted religious aspects of festivals.. Other issues - e.g. relation between official and unofficial, institutional and popular, invention of tradition. modern day equivalents in arts festivals, cultural celebrations, sports festivals, especially opening and closing ceremonies?
criticises for "militant" rites of remembrance ceremonies. Not fair to Bellah, who emphasises self-critical and prophetic role. Also fails to distinguish remembrance of dead from remembrance of war. Refers to invention of tradition but doesn't go into detail - perhaps should do because highlights the fact that all human institutions, including religion, are invented, they don't just grow. First World War crucial in development of rituals for both UK and US. why not the civil war? and for US for US had begun to take shape after civil war.
15 pivotal role of civil war in construction of American national identity recently re-emphasised in historical scholarship - . North and South each developed own understandings. 15 The earliest stages in the formulation of "American civil religion" thus provided the resources for both the Union in the North and the Confederacy in the South to develop their own distinctive mythical and mystical understandings of the Civil War some 80 odd years later. War as national sacrifice, baptism of blood - imagery shared by both sides.
17 Civil War - dramatic change in attitude to remains - previously mass unmarked graves. 1861 War Department of Union directed soldiers should be buried identifiably. Precise origin of Memorial Day May 30th unclear. South had its own Memorial Day - only started sharing the North's in C20, especially after world wars.
19 Broader process of sharing began earlier especially at sacred sites. 1882 and 1887 reunion of survivors of Gettysburg from both sides. 1982 High Water Mark of the Rebellion monument - paid for by northern states but specifically honoured dead of both sides. 1938 Eternal Peace Light memorial sounds Korean . Evolving meaning reinterpretation of history - also hidden history - EPLMemorial suggested by veteran in 1912 - took till 1938
22 causes interpreted as equally just because of heroism and commitment of soldiers of both sides the means justifies the end
Arlington - included southern dead but these were not officially recognised at first. Spanish-American War 1898 south swept by patriotic fervour for new cause. 1900 official reburial of southern dead with distinctive headstones. 1905 return of captured southern battle flags, not long previously resisted by northern states. note place of flags in St Gennys church 1914 separate monument at Arlington to confederate dead - Latin inscription commemorates "lost cause".
Arlington explicitly called "sacred ground" "hallowed". Memorial Amphitheatre to honour all soldiers decided 1913, finished 1920, ready made location for Tomb of Unknown Soldier. 1926 11 Nov officially called Armistice Day, 1938 became national holiday, 1954 renamed Veterans Day. 1956 remains of unknown soldiers of 2WW and Korean War added to Tomb. 1984 one from Vietnam War. Vietnam body subsequently exhumed and identified using DNA. Tomb then left empty. Constant tinkering, adaptation, reinvention
26 UK - absence of a comparably traumatic experience of war led to later emergence of characteristic British remembrance - early C20. I think this is quite a dodgy statement. We had lots of experience - it was the Civil War that was different, being fought on American soil, and he argues above that it didn't make a big difference and certainly not straight away. Reporting of Crimean War had significant impact, together with efforts of Florence Nightingale. Crimean War slight and slow increase in marked graves. Graves not officially cared for. Boer War state made modest provision - small iron crosses for graves not otherwise catered for. Care of such graves fell to voluntary society, though one with royal patronage. Widespread tradition of local commemoration mixed with Jubilee markers 1887, 1897 - local memorials to Boer War casualties usually prompted by local dignitaries and sought to draw subscriptions from all classes. a clue here - drawing all classes into the act, deliberate attempts at unification - remember before 1WW elite was worried British working classes would not fight - surprised and relieved that they turned out with such enthusiasm when the war started.. Extensive press reporting and large number of local volunteer units maintained interest.
1WW prompted massive shift in official and public attitudes, principal cause being scale of deaths. Note all current rituals invented in C20. 700,000 UK dead and 300,000 dominion and empire. Risk of death as part of soldier's life not relevant to most, so demand for recognition. Rolls of honour being created during war, partly as recruiting instrument, but soon primarily for remembrance. Street shrines invented by Anglican priests during mission of repentance and hope 1916, and rapidly developed. Note churches not uniform in opinion, but overwhelmingly approved of war and believed in moral rightness of British cause. Interest in spiritualism grew - opposed by C of E. Belief widespread after war that dead still present.
War prompted new official concern. 1915 Red Cross given job of finding identifying and marking graves. March 1915 War Office took over with Graves Registration Commission; 1917 Imperial War Graves Commission. Designed, built and maintained hundreds of cemeteries. By 1930 550,000 British and Empire servicemen reburied; 180,000 unidentified also reburied. 300,000 never found. But recorded by name in local and battle memorials.
July 1919 victory parade. Included temporary Cenotaph - instigated by Lloyd George and against much opposition. Public reaction, bringing flowers etc, determined that the Cenotaph would stay. Original wood and plaster; permanent version unveiled 1920, and much copied since. Referred to as "consecrated" in a letter from Sir Alfred Mond, and Lutyens was instructed to make it nondenominational.
1919 2 minute silence - immense support and emotional impact. 1920 Armistice Day permanent Cenotaph unveiled with modestly Christian ceremony, with efforts to secure inclusion of Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Hindu participants. 1920 also burial of unknown soldier in Westminster Abbey - overwhelming public support - half a million to a million paid homage in the next week and 100000 wreaths left at Cenotaph. By end of 1920 three other elements added - 1921 poppy appeal; 1927 British Legion Festival of Remembrance at Albert Hall - emerged out of controversy over dinners and dances held in previous years and judged to be too high-spirited; 1928 annual field of remembrance at Westminster Abbey. 1928 also Cenotaph ceremony broadcast - paradoxical transmission of 2 minutes of silence very effective.
These traditions could be described as a liturgy. Practice also grew of local memorial services on closest Sunday especially after Nov 11th fell on Sunday in 1923.
During 1930s debate over meaning of 1WW and hence of Armistice Day. Alternative Armistice Days, including white poppies. Some suggested discontinuing. 1939 Armistice Day cancelled (so must have been about peace by then) but poppy appeal still held.
1945 debate over continuing 11 Nov or choosing another day. Remembrance Sunday became official. Festival of Remembrance moved to Saturday before it. New arrangement became official 1946 with rededication of Cenotaph. TV brought wider viewing audience.
Not so popular since 2WW but still unquestionably the biggest expression of civil religion the only one?? Do Christmas and Easter count as civil religion? Northern Ireland - an example where rituals are precise - hence perpetuate idea of conflict??
43-4 American rituals - shared trauma. UK rituals - language of remembrance removed from usual social and Bushaway political debate and elevated to a level of spiritual significance from where its memory for peacetime British society was of a special, supranational and sacred quality. I'm not sure about the supranational bit - I think it's very carefully packaged to define "our nation" as standing for right things and "their nation" as not. Was expression of unity even in tensions of General Strike and Great Depression.
44 variety of disagreements over what memorials should look like. E.g. Bradford soldier and sailor advancing with fixed bayonets seen by some as too aggressive, by others as suggesting self-sacrifice. I'm reminded of The Way Ahead, 1944, in the last scene of which the band of newly trained recruits are shown advancing with fixed bayonets in a way that suggests they are doing their duty for their country - and I note that the film was used for many years as officer training material by both UK and Australian forces.
46-7 realm of absolute meaning - parallel to death of Christ. NB language of remembrance theologically lazy to the point of heresy, though some would suggest "alternative" rather than lazy.
UK War Graves Commission chose Cross of Sacrifice with downturned sword, and Stone of Remembrance (designed by Lutyens) - variety of possible interpretations. Lutyens pantheist and interested in theosophy. Calls for Cenotaph to have Christian text were rejected - Lutyens suggests seen by some as pagan. Tomb of Unknown Soldier has Christian text, which caused argument. But Cenotaph became focus of popular and official ceremony.
1918 IWGC decided on standard non-religious headstone which could be engraved with religious motif. my interpretation is that this is quite deliberate and to do with maintaining the loyalty of empire soldiers. 50-51 memorial to Indian soldiers at Patcham. 51 chairman of memorial committee There is a religion underlying all religions. It is the consecration of the principles of justice, righteousness, mercy, goodwill, towards men. It is the orientation towards the unseen Giver of life, of our thoughts on those principles of conduct divinely implanted in mankind
Channel Four's programme on the ten new commandments has something to say about civil religion. Not sure what.
52 refers to civil religion as vague and unspecific - meaning here is specifically that it is not identifiable as any particular organised religion, but I think it is very specific in some ways. Concept of realm of absolute meaning is questionable.
Possible tensions e.g. inclusion of other religions Southampton 1994 energetically attacked by a minority. 1982 memorial service for Falklands -archbishop of Canterbury attacked by some conservative MPs for opposing nationalism. Other tensions - interpretation can exclude e.g. US ideology of reconciliation excluded black soldiers. Frederick Douglass strove to preserve memory of issue of slavery. 1916 survey found 3 monuments which identified black soldiers - has been called 1994 systematic cultural repression, carried out in the guise of reconciliation and harmony You could say the same of British remembrance - includes others, but sort of whitewashes them
Little Bighorn 1876, memorial 1881, remembrance cast Custer as hero, Indians as villains till 1970s reinterpretation. 1990s agreement to build Indian monument fiercely opposed by some. Indicates limits to effectiveness and inclusiveness. Civil religion doesn't have to be inclusive - these examples are mostly inclusive because that was their specific purpose - uniting a nation
UK strenuous avoidance of any critique of imperialism. N Ireland Protestants commemorate 5500 dead of first day of battle of Somme 1916. RCs commemorate 1916 Easter rising.
61 ambiguity of some aspects - both ignore that large numbers of Catholics fought in the BRitish army, and that in 1914 it was the Ulster Protestants who were threatening armed uprising.
62 The day no longer carries the mystical conviction that it should be a transforming experience... It is increasingly the memory of a memory. It can survive as long as those who remember what Armistice Day once was survive... I don't agree - ceremonials can be reinvented, like history. We've seen that in the past few years. US tried to change the date of memorial day and met heavy resistance. UK 1995 2 minute silence reintroduced as an experiment - sufficiently successful to continue. 9/11 has caused an upsurge in such sentiment here as well as in the US. And the resurgence of (English) national feeling boosted by the Euro championships in 1996, with the regular deployment of the English flag.
2000 US decided on national monument of all dead of WW2, and on National Moment of Remembrance.
>John Schwartz on Home Truths May 2000 on visiting his friends' gravesIt all seems so bloody futile... I love coming here, but I hate what it stands for. All that killing, them and us. Why?... The world's still in a hell of a state. Journey seen as pilgrimage. 70 permeated by a desperate desire to find meaning and a sense of worth in spite of the manifest evidence of loss and futility.
1960s UK saw low point in number of visits and enquiries to Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Considerable resurgence since mid 80s. By 2000 enough to be a commercial market. School visits transmitting idea of pilgrimage. 1989-1995 series of big 50th anniversaries. Modern travel has made visits easier and British tradition of reserve was giving way to more open expression of feelings.
80 unintentional pilgrims - people who cease to be tourists and connect to something very deep.
Described in NYT as "hallowed national shrine" and "sacred place"/
84 only really alive war memorial in any western nation. Parsons speaks of "outpouring". 86 people touching the stone Liverpool players touching the cup - what connection is there? 86 offerings left at the Wall - have become the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Collection.
89-91 messages - search for absolution, forgiveness - strategies for redemption
93 experience of being reflected back. Desire to speak to the dead. Experience of woman arriving 2.30 a.m. finding people there and feeling safe and protected. 96 websites use of the internet CWGC and VVM
These - both UK and US - are personal rather than collective experiences - can they be described as civil religion? I think definitely yes because it's about connecting to a common strand.
100 places that provocatively and profoundly juxtapose intense individuality and the reality of mass death I think Parsons loses the plot in the back end of this chapter. He covers nearly three pages with quoted messages, more than is academically necessary. His conclusion is an exploration rather than an analysis of themes of collective grief and the search for meaning. Could have done much more. And I'm with him every step of the way - I've been in tears for much of these chapters.
Privately funded, siting in Constitutional gardens approved by Congress, required approval of deign by National Capital planning Commission, Commission of Fine Arts, and Dept of Interior. Some argued bitterly against symbolism of Maya Lin's design - black and being dug into the earth for some meant association with death. Some felt should display prominently the American flag.
113 figurative statues installed 1984 - response to desire of conservative groups for more conventional and heroic element. Bewildered look on the three figures: positioned (unintentionally) as if just emerging from the woods to confront the VVM. 115 Nov 1993 Women's Memorial (to 800 killed) - prompted by the statue of the men - otherwise would not have been necessary. Note types of alienation experienced by women who served in Vietnam. And parallel these with the alienation felt by the men who served
It surprises by its impact. 118 subverts the kind of distant attention that visitors bring to familiar tourist sites. sees it as simultaneously therapeutic and challenging. 119 not heroic - speaks principally of pain and loss. Depth of rejection and isolation felt by returning veterans. Wall played part in reversing this process.
120 encourages critical patriotism - for what and for whom should Americans die in war? I'm reminded here of the Swift boat veterans vicious campaign against Kerry's candidature for the Presidency
120 a space of absence... in which we have the simultaneous experience of both the absence and the presence of the dead. So must memorials be imprecise because the meanings of what they memorialise are contested? I don't think so - a memorial can be precise and alienate those who disagree with the sentiments it expresses. 2WW had a moral cause if any war did, yet Schwartz still sees it as futile. - Schwartz has other more positive feelings about it too. VW fractured a nation in a very public way, so makers of a memorial could choose to take one side or not to take sides.
121 idea of the living dead.
And also of the dead dead. See:
National Vietnam Veterans Art Museum
And particularly Arthur Dockter
and also Jay Burnham-Kidwell
121 the felt presence of the other.
123 more negative readings e.g. notes limited nature of national compromise achieved by VVM - sees it primarily as symbolic of still unresolved meaning of Vietnam War precisely because of acceptance of ambiguity over war so much responsibility to lay on a piece of stone. I think his perspective is wrong - you can't heal such a deep and wide division by planting a memorial. If the VVM had carried a more specific meaning it would have been even less reconciliatory than it has been because it would have simply alienated the people it did not speak for
124 note many leave flags, symbols of patriotism they imply unquestioning patriotism - a political statement that was not intended. Wall is a paradox.
126 notes items left becoming more prepared - *intended* to be kept. Visits show signs of conforming to established patterns, precedents and rituals - liturgical. Wall is site of resistance that contests any single official interpretation. Doesn't produce fixed consensual memory but variety constructs and reconstructs history but that can still be a reconciliation
126-7 "schizophrenic" 10th anniversary of construction 1992.
128 quotes a Park Service volunteer The memorial says "This is the price we pay". It doesn't say whether it was right... it doesn't say whether it was worth it. It just says "This is the cost of war". Features such as leaving of flags open to multiple interpretations *division* in the case of the VW is very public; not so with 2WW - even 1WW, despite horrors of slaughter
129 Realm of absolute meaning - names on the Wall insistently pose the question what is the value of human life compare to the values for which nations go to war. - his hope for a prophetic form of civil religion separates nation from state - state will obviously try to co-opt it, but it's not the same thing
130 it has been suggested that the immense sorrow of the place enables other private rituals - of repentance. say it will lose its pull when relatives of the dead are themselves dead - this may not be so, given the resurgence in interest in UK ceremonial in 80s and 90s.
131 Korean War Veterans Memorial and National World War Two Memorial - more representative and classical, and make the VVM one of three rather than unique.
The book doesn't do justice to either the Korean War Veterans' Memorial or the National World War II Memorial. The KWVM is representational, but clearly capable of multiple meanings and it challenges the visitor in a variety of ways. The WW2 memorial is much more "American" and classical, but it has so many features that it would be surprising if visitors did not come away with a wide variety of reactions and feelings.
Visitor's impression of the Korean War Veterans' Memorial
Another visitor's impression of the Korean War Veterans' Memorial
Veteran's impression of the Korean War Veterans' Memorial
Official National World War II Memorial site
