Issues about the way organisations spread:
8 global religious movements are largely independent of the dominant economic,political and technological forces that drive other forms of globalisation. I'm not at all sure about the idea of religions as globalising - there must be a distinction between merely spreading and having a globalising effect. Soka Gakkai - appeals to elites - shows potential to modify secular direction of modernising and globalising trends to which its adherents are particularly exposed. But elites have power - they can do their own modifying.
Christianity has three broad channels - bible, church, reason. Evangelicals believe God reveals self primarily through Bible. Wolffe sees Pentecostalism as form of Evangelical, though some see it as different. Particularly Roman Catholic Pentecostals, I should think. NB distinguish "evangelical" from "evangelistic".
16 formative phase mid C18 "evangelical revival" or "great awakening". Wesley "converted" 1738.
18 established during Industrial Revolution. Organisationally flexible - able to move easily into new population centres. Confidence and certainty appealed in age of mass migration and dislocation of traditional patterns of work. Also time of political change - American and French revolutions, and of constitutional adjustment in UK. within the framework set by their own presuppositions, they cultivated rational and scientific modes of thought, notably in their approach to the interpretation and application of the bible, while treating its authoritative and divinely inspired nature as axiomatic.. Spread associated particularly with "revivals", group transformations. Had political and cultural effects through reforming organisations; growth of missionary movement.
19 mid C19 lost momentum. Urban expansion slowed. Intellectual change - Darwinism etc - split between those who sought to embrace modern ideas and those who reasserted traditional ways of thinking. Latter especially strong in USA. 1910-1915 release of series of pamphlets called "The Fundamentals", hence "Fundamentalism". 1920s crusading strategy. Also strong in N Ireland as focus for Protestant identity.
20 1925 Scopes trial on teaching of Darwinism.
21 1906 Apostolic Faith Gospel Mission, Los Angeles - speaking in tongues etc. Spread in UK in 1950s due to W Indian immigration. In Latin America Protestantism marginal till substantial impact under Pentecostalism. 22 some suggest 20 fold increase 1960-1980. But see Berryman for a different interpretation. Figures are difficult because evangelicals cross denominations but all suggest strong general upsurge in modern times. 1975-95 Pentecostal and house churches have grown substantially. Orthodox somewhat (because conservative). Anglican decline of 23%. Baptist marginal decline.
John Stott. Billy Graham.
Resurgence in 1950s probably suggests disillusionment with humanistic solutions. 1960s-90s growth in face of decline in mainstream Christianity and growing competition from Hindu, Muslim etc. Also arguably lost cohesiveness, became multi-faceted. Five recent trends - charismaticisation, reorganisation, politicisation, globalisation, acculturation.
Charismaticisation. Early 60s revival of charismatic experiences; 1965-1980 spread largely among middle classes. 70s and 80s third wave associated with John Wimber, Californian founder of Vineyard churches, close personal ties established. Jan 1994 Toronto Blessing. Issues re testimony vs Bible teaching, and development of a charismatic theology. Three features - speaking in tongues, prophesy, healing. Worship as important as sermon, sometimes more so.
Reorganisation. Simultaneously centrifugal and centripetal. Centrifugal - house churches all examples associated with a person. Substantial black evangelical presence - lower than in Caribbean, higher than UK norm. More working class. Recently evangelicals have reduced barriers with other denominations. Watson changed views on Catholics particularly since experiencing sectarianism in N Ireland 1977 went further than many approved of in saying Reformation was the greatest tragedy.
Evangelicals anti-intellectual and anti-theological, therefore superficial and with inadequate apologetics. Lack of well thought out position led to negative pietism and legalistic ethics. Negative attitude to social action, apart from immediate local philanthropy.
1995 evangelicalism experience based - lacking in knowledge of bible. Knowledge and understanding needed.
Politicisation: antislavery campaign and moral and social reform. Civil equality for non-Anglicans. 1960s political engagement on moral and social issues. National Viewers and Listeners Campaign - Christian Action Research and Education. 37 TEAR Fund, Jubilee Trust. Christian Action network (Catherwood), Ichthus Fellowship. 1990 Movement for Christian Democracy - Christian People's Alliance.
38-9 Paisley radically conservative Free Presbyterian Church - much membership overlap with DUP.
Globalisation: C19 missionary activity. 1984 Billy Graham with Luis Palau in Mission England. Toronto Blessing - phone and email. Not just Americanisation, e.g. UK Alpha courses. This section is weak. There could be a much deeper analysis of what globalisation means and how churches react to it.
Acculturation: some stand apart. Tensions manifest in attitudes to teenagers. But movement historically better understood as assimilation e.g. rational after Enlightenment, dramatic during Romanticism, subjective during Modernism.45 1998 suggested, to much opposition, that evangelicalism needed less dogmatic conception of Biblical doctrine, more critical approach to Bible and more engagement with the world. says evangelicalism well equipped for postmodern mission. says Charismatic movement would be described as hypermodern.
46-7 diversity of evangelical doctrine and worship. Age distribution more like normal. More concentration on concept of family. 48-9 some typologies exist, but do violence to rich mixture of types and internal diversity is always inherent due to insistence on *individual* salvation, and part of strength of evangelical movement.
49-50 USA - numbers difficult to establish, but much larger proportion than UK both of churchgoers and of whole population. Uneven geographical distribution.
51 symbolic point of departure foundation of National Association of Evangelicals 1942 St Louis. *Engaged orthodoxy* . 1946 Fuller Theological Seminary. 1956 Christianity Today, leading spokesman Billy Graham. 1957 his readiness to co-operate with liberal protestants led to split with Fundamentalists. suggests national differences blurred at local level. data suggest significant demographic and sociological differences in membership e.g. 65% ev 57% fund are women. 52% ev and 61% fund believe bible literally true. 75% ev, 65% fund believe there are moral absolutes. Possibly differences are more of culture than theology, with evangelicals being more activist and more critically engaged.
53 distinctive feature *dispensational millenarianism*, linked to mainstream interest in apocalyptic issues and underlying sense that USA has special place in God's plan and fear of nuclear war or ecological catastrophe.
55 Charismatic movement widely influential. 19% self identified 1979. Congregations can diversify or split. Easier in USA than in UK to build new churches , e.g. land prices and planning laws less restrictive.
56-7 by 1980s evangelicals most likely group to be politically involved. Moral causes and support for Republican Party. (but not all are Republicans - black evangelicals almost 100% Democrat). Plethora of organisations and pressure groups.
First born again president was Jimmy Carter. Clinton had Tony Campolo from Philadelphia - emphasis on social engagement and education rather than family and moral values. 1987 said mid 80s evangelical college students 30% liberal or very liberal, 36% conservative or very conservative. Only 24% approved of Moral Majority policies.
Christian Right *not* same as Evangelical - political diversity, complexity, ambivalence
Globalisation: less evident - some UK ideas, and Billy Graham as global. But 59 sheer size and diversity of the country means that many, perhaps most, Evangelicals continue to have little sense of direct contact with parts of the world beyond its borders. Their consciousness of religion is that it is something distinctively American, rather than being an expression of a global Christian identity. But does it not react to the threat of Islam? Does it not take a position vis a vis Judaism
Acculturation: changing styles of worship, musical trends - for babyboomers music as carrier of identity; since 1970s commercial production means music no longer limited to services. Willow Creek - marketing strategy redolent of secular commercialism - rigorously planned and professionally produced services, with gradual leading to faith. 62-66 variety of examples of diversity.
64 broadcasting particularly prominent (contrast to UK control of airwaves). Apparently bucks trend of secularisation. 65 argues accommodates secularism e.g. downplaying more off-putting aspects. concludes evangelicalism will fade. disagrees. Also disagrees with , and that strict churches do best. points out Fundamentalist churches not doing so well as Evangelical and are stricter. data support this.
66 suggest "competitive marketing" theory - i.e. evangelicals survive because have adopted cultural character of secular free market capitalism. In UK and Europe tradition of state churches and government legislation has led to religious lethargy. suggests evangelicals will survive in pluralistic modern society by embedding itself in subcultures that offer morally satisfying collective identities which provide adherents meaning and belonging. In a pluralistic society those religious groups will be relatively stronger which better possess and employ the cultural tools needed to create both clear distinction from and significant engagement and tension with other relevant outgroups, short of becoming genuinely countercultural. But NB starts from clear distinction between fundamentalists and evangelicals which doesn't do justice to reality.
67 claims evangelicalism to be quintessentially American - free market and popular style - but e.g. UK evangelicals thrive in state church.
Religious supernaturalism as primitive is both reductionist and empirically indiscriminate. *church* as having positive view of outside world, *sect* as rejecting outside world. prefer notion of "conversionist" to describe sectarian nature of Charismatics. argues Charismatic Christianity neither pre-modern nor antimodern, but has embraced modernity, either reluctantly or enthusiastically.
199 Revivalism itself a modern phenomenon. Came into being with Enlightenment, with critical rationality, individualism and pietism. Methodist revival (UK) and First Great Awakening (USA) part of cultural shift from feudalism to capitalism. E.g. on Second Great Awakening - passion and piety of revivals also fulfilled progressivist idea of American dream.
200 revivals emphasis on experience and self is modern in itself and conducive to religious freedom of Republic and pietistic but theologically non-specific civil religion of middle America. 201 says C19 revivals isomorphic with modernity. Details - e.g. showmanship, business acumen.
Provided legitimate context for public emotion, later transferred to baseball and football, and politics Didn't that already exist - weddings, funerals, plays, festivals.
Long term effects - establishment of innumerable sects, contribution to public life by building of hospitals and schools, provision of education and self help to make ladder of social mobility.
Definition of "Lessing's ditch".
Great revivals optimistic and future oriented. Contrast with Irvingism and other millenarian pessimisms - Christadelphians, Seventh Day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses which could be characterised as reactions of fear of modernism
203 Pentecostalism can be seen as antimodern - manifestations seemed preposterous and their appearance among black and white uneducated people seemed implausible; based on adventism. Led to hostile or indifferent stance to rest of world. However, it became unwittingly modern. Walker quite strong on this idea of sects/ denominations stumbling unknowingly into the modern world
205 some see Pentecostalism as feudal, so necessarily antimodern. But second generation of pentecostalists, not wedded to fundamentalist epistemology, e.g. many Anglicans and Catholics, also new church leaders, also Toronto Blessing. There follows a complex argument about classical and neo-pentecostals, which I didn't follow for lack of definition of the two terms
206 argues early C20 you had to have Fundamentalist credentials to have any Christian legitimacy.
Charismatics often heterodox in belief.
Fundamentalists also modern despite resistance to modern thought. Late C19 resistance (both RC and Protestant) used techniques of rationality to shore up fundamentalist truth claims. Developed doctrine of inerrancy, which caused its own problems because of Bible's internal contradictions. Walker argues fundamentalism is modern in technique though antimodern in temper. Also says pentecostalism not fundamentalist, just has trappings because of early C20 history, and has been influenced by fundamentalism to keep on Biblical straight and narrow.
209 early classical pentecostalism antimodern because adventist and other worldly/ But with routinisation of charisma, tended to follow revivalist path - pragmatic and technological. Have not adopted modern scriptural hermeneutics or Enlightenment doctrine of critical rationality and progress. But have used modern technology - advertising and management techniques. Commitment to demotic hymnody - no doubt to subvert popular culture - has in effect made them far more at home with mass media and common culture than mainline counterparts (but ditto fundamentalism).
on South America demonstrates pentecostal modernising tendencies. Much more modern than RC influences. 210 in tune with free expression, free enterprise, democracy, hard work, individuality, and Holy Ghost.
211 pentecostalism moved from working class to middle class in late modernity, when we also moved from ascetic individualism to hedonistic individualism. Term "charismatic" - less threatening - replaced "pentecostal". Became gentrified. 212 to be a charismatic... was phenomenologically identical to being a Pentecostal but culturally redefined by class, taste, and the late modern preoccupation with therapy and self-fulfilment.... If Pentecostals in the First World were reluctantly modern in their early days, renewalists were thoroughly modern from the start.
214 greatest influence in 1970s, on the wane by 1980s. Never totally distinct from classical Pentecostalism. shows overlapping and intertwining from 1960s onwards. New movements also affected both Pentecostals and Charismatics e.g. Restorationist house churches - radical separationists and saw mainstream churches as moribund - syncretistic amalgam of classical, renewalist and independent streams. Restorationists more enthusiastic evangelists than renewalists, and formed selves into sectarian enclaves.
216 religious changes were taking place at a bewildering pace in the late twentieth century. By 1990s Pentecostalists, renewalists and charismatics virtually indistinguishable in hymnody and practice.
218 Toronto Blessing a craze - typology of changing collective behaviour. 219 Enthusiasts emphasise God visiting his people, blessing them, playing with them, releasing them, refreshing them.... in a way Toronto has been an abyss of primordial experience - a disintegration of liturgical and Biblical norms. But it fades. Some former enthusiasts have moved out of charismatic movement altogether. Some have moved to the Alpha idea. John Wimber has disowned Toronto and excommunicated pastor of Toronto Vineyard church. Craze seems to be fading.
219 Walker's not impressed by current charismatic movement No longer restrained by fundamentalist edicts, or... mainline theology... Charismatic Christianity increasingly appears fey and orphic. Sense here of historical perspective changing in Walker's writing. The closer he gets to the point of writing, the more difficulty he seems to have in putting subject matter into perspective.
220 Walker believes Charismatic movement's unacknowledged father is likely to turn out to be Friedrich Schleiermacher who rebelled against German rationalism by producing a religion of feeling and God consciousness mixed with Moravian pietism.
221 Classical Pentecostalism - modern - especially in the developing world. NeoPentecostalism overstressed "self experience" and "supply side spirituality". Pentecostalism will now be buffetted by theological confusion and social fragmentation. was this seeing things through the prism of the mid 90s when people thought globalisation was going to have all sorts of effects which have not happened e.g. end of the nation state.
223 post-modernity continuities and discontinuities. 222 Must be careful not to confuse postmodernity as intellectual fashion with genuine shift in culture.
225-6 thesis of subcultural identity. evangelicalism utilises its culturally pluralistic environment to socially construct subcultural distinction, engagement and tension between itself and relevant outgroups and that this builds religious strength. Evangelicalism... flourishes on difference, engagement, tension, conflict, and threat... takes as given that evangelicalism serves as a primary source of identity, if not as master status. So not examining religious *persistence* but religious *strength*. Suggests
226 throughout its history evangelical elite has had sense of crisis, threat, serving to invigorate. Also suggests apprehension.
227 very strong sense of boundaries between them and non-Christians, and also other Christians.. 229 sense of possessing the ultimate truth. 230 sense of practical moral superiority. 232 Table shows more evangelicals than fundamentalists or anyone else believe in absolute standards, and that Christian morality should be law of land, and that Christian values should be different from rest of society. 233 sense of lifestyle and value distinctiveness, but 234 struggle to remain involved with and relevant to mainstream American culture.
235 sense of evangelistic and social mission. Belief that religion should have voice in public affairs (Table 2, p 236 shows trend evangelicals most to non-religious least) Also direct testimony. 238 evangelicalism actually benefits from this engagement with what it sees as an oppositional-but-needy world, as much or more as it thinks the world benefits from it.
239 sense of displaced heritage. Evangelicals think America became free and prosperous because of Judaeo-Christian heritage from which it is now turning away. 241 sense of second class citizenship - e.g. treatment of Christianity in schools. Some actively resent this, others just frustrated. 243 sense, for some, of increasing external threats. suggests seeing evangelicals as ethnic minority. Note parallel with Indians - once owners now marginalised. shows how consciousness of supranational identity emerged in 1950s with threat to dismantle reservation system - it took an external threat to mobilise a collective Indian identity. viz Tajfel Awareness of groups hostile to Christians not clear at all who these groups are. One speaker mentions homosexual and atheist groups - not taking into account that homosexuals wouldn't be so hostile to Christians if Christians weren't so hostile to them.
Accommodation in sense of changing issues e.g. antimodernism replaced by moral relativism. But 245 in this process of accommodation, evangelicals appear no more or less cognitively contaminated or ideologically compromised - judged on their own terms - thatn they were in previous decades. Modern pluralism creates conditions in which strong religious subculture can form, sustaining self-perceived semi-deviant identity.
Evangelical means good news. West Indian came to Britain - said to be a dead land, but always deep evangelical roots in England; some aspects revitalised by W Indian presence e.g. worship. People have taken God's word seriously; reaffirmed commitment to scripture.
Current strengths - better scholarship. Weakness - we are also products of culture we live in, so no longer united. New challenges, lack of good leadership to tackle demands of postmodern society.
Roots firmly in AfroCaribbean origins - big difference participatory worship rather than English hierarchical tradition with one man doing everything.
Criticism of morality being out of date - some truth in it - predictable list of thou shalt nots. These are right, but other things also matter - crime, suicide, overcrowded prisons, globalisation - evangelicalism must concern itself with these.
Recognise we're in it for the long haul - particularly to do with capturing minds of young people. Leadership and life have to be authentic, reality, not parading of institutional habits. Britain significantly pagan, so must address that - wider agenda, incarnational.
rev Wainaina's church. Badly sung chorus. Quiet effort and ecstasy. Love worshipping God. Paula Medwell - born again experience. Mixed age and gender, no children visible. Change of style to encourage youngsters.
Milton Keynes Covenant Fellowship. Traditional chorus. Children. All encouraged to lay hands on children while man in charge (pastor?) prayed for them. Pastor gave creationist account. Testimony of a married couple - he testified, she stood silent - followed by applause. Love worshipping God.
Willow Creek. Performance. Songs and sketches. Audience completely passive. Singer with an amazing mullet.
Bible Way Church, Natchez, Mississippi. energetic. Well-dressed. Women mostly in hats. Pastor chicken walking, so was everyone else. Piece ended with him doing Little Richard jump. Linda Ramsay - the most beautiful, beautiful feeling. Pastor and reader double act reading from the bible. Brilliant, but my wife found alien and ridiculous.
Assemblies of God, Campinas, Brazil. Disciplined. Brass band, Onward Christian Soldiers in Brazilian - ?choir only singing. Quite ornate church, but modern. All ages, but some distinct areas of space - bunch of grey men in grey suits on a platform - ?elders. Chorus - everyone joined in. Then big band sound. Eclectic music. Pastor strolls, dominant,heard in silence, then rouses congregation to shouts in appropriate places. People coming forward for mass laying on of hands.
Rhema church Johannesburg Pastor warms up the congregation, which is huge. Rehearsed pop style act backed by choir. African style hosanna. Pastor Ray McCauley "say amen, someone" , gives the congregation stage directions. Disciplined organised session of rebuke. Bringing people forward, gives them words to pray.
155 easier to recognise than describe. Meeting of man and God central. 156 they say they hope not to be distracted by definition, but in fact they are. "Neo-Pentecostal" seems to be applied to charismatics in mainstream churches that have not joined Pentecostal churches. Quest for definition is modern, definitely not post-modern and might even be premodern.
This is a document whose sense of caution drips off the pages. I can just picture a bunch of fusty old canons prudently drawing up a document that doesn't offend anyone.
describes three strands - form (RC), primacy of Word (Protestant), experience (Pentecostal).
159 post-evangelicals. Evangelicalism doesn't address the postmodern world. Too much generalisation here. *Some* people do as Tomlinson describes. 160 New Agers interpreted as deluded or as sincerely searching for God. idea Funding the postmodern imagination. Not offering a full alternative (a grad narrative), but a lot of pieces/.
69 suggests mid 90s, 30-35m Pentecostals in S and C America. Consistent with other figures - roughly 2/3 of 45m evangelicals, who are approx 10% of population. 70 national variations - least hospitable territory are most developed and secularised, Uruguay and Venezuela.
71-2 badly expressed account of conditions of urban poverty, explains appeal of Pentecostal message. 73 healing experiences widespread and inextricably linked to membership.
Note many still acknowledge reality and immediacy of non-natural forces. Some scholars see Pentecostalism as outgrowth of folk Catholicism. 74 affinity with Afro-Brazilian religions e.g. Umbanda and Candomble - exorcism and sacrifices. Only 1.5% adherents but major cultural influence. Pentecostals have similar forms, but offer more lasting and radical solutions.
74 material advantages - personal connections for finding work. Degree of security against destitution, though evidence inconclusive on prosperity. Significant bettering for women, despite patriarchal principles, opportunities for leadership, taming of macho violence. Parallel to C19 evangelicals in UK,
77 core appeal is to urban poor, but present in other areas, helped by internal diversity. E.g. on Brazil notes 3 periods of expansion. First early C20 Italian and Swedish immigrants - both sets of churches now thoroughly indigenised. Second 50s and 60s - 4 Square Gospel - US import - appealed to top social order. Brazil for Christ founded by a Brazilian - much beyond church based activity - tents, secular buildings, use of broadcasting. Third 70s and 80s - a prosperity theology, while maintaining links with popular religion by e.g. exorcism.
78 significant appeal among indigenous e.g. Airo-Pai - has helped stem alcoholism and drug abuse, arguably incorporated into prior framework of religious belief. Assessments of impact vary widely from being seen as destructive to possibility of restoration. For Maya provides social structure resembling traditional patterns. extent of assimilation means Pentecostals find converts but don't always keep them - variety of statistics to back this up.
79 some second generation churches have moved with members into more middle class style - colder and more formal worship.
RCs have extensively reorganised, which will affect effectiveness at grassroots (but see who suggests reorganisation aimed at curbing base communities as much as anything.
the five trends
charismaticisation. Has been significant since 1960s. Less emphasis no tongues, don't necessarily join evangelical congregations, more middle class. Dominant in Peru among smaller evangelical population.
81 organisation new churches and denominations, but also growing consciousness of identity. International co-operation continent wide.
81 politicisation increasingly political. Largely right wing but complex. Guatemala dictatorship 1982-83 Rios Montt evangelical - eventually overthrown by another general. Some Protestant churches supported Pinochet, but by 1986 others were among those openly calling for democracy. 83 notes difficult for conservative Protestants to ignore social ills of their countries. 1989 Brazil many evangelicals supported Lula - quotes use of language of spiritual warfare. 84 Brazilian congress 2000 54 evangelical deputies, stronger on right, but all across political spectrum. Recent overviews, , have avoided secular categories and given primacy to religious motivation - conservative on moral issues but can include progressive social engagement at local level. Corporatism reflects Latin American culture - religious political organisations look after their own. In Spanish speaking Latin America more than 20 religious political parties. General movement's capacity to nurture leadership can be seen as positive for democracy.
globalisation some believe deliberate attempt by US religious right to subvert RC. Evidence in e.g. Pat Robertson's support for Montt and for Contras. But, e.g., AOG is USA is not controlling its Brazilian counterpart so much as basking in reflected glory. Influence also from Europe - Italy and Sweden - and from Africa. And reverse -Argentinian Luis Palau known worldwide. Brazilian Universal Church of Kingdom of God expanding in 60 countries. care about whether this is globalisation or just expansion
acculturation implicit in much of foregoing. More akin to C18 Methodist revival than to contemporary counterparts. But thoroughly modern - use of media, place in globalising networks, emergence of prosperity theology.
Total world evangelical population 638m (upper limit) i.e. one third of Christians, one tenth of world population. S Korea now quarter of population - can be accounted for - vibrant worship, leadership, community and personal support. spiritual enterprise culture" has to be because uncentralised churches don't survive without it
China - no reliable stats. International Religious Freedom Report 2004 says 4% population roughly, and also notes that China recognises RC and Protestant separately and doesn't recognise, therefore bans, house church movement.
S Africa - Evangelical, Pentecostal and African Initiated Churches 10m out of 32m. "Ethiopian" churches are black secessions from white led missionary churches. "Zionist" more pentecostal, strong among urban migrant workers - assimilate aspects of traditional African religion, especially healing practices. calls it a true synthesis, a new creation.
92 white evangelical churches seen as agents of outside influence, particularly right wing. But evidence of influence does not mean evidence of domination e.g. Rhema church. History matters - some substance to charge that they acquiesced too easily in apartheid. But some evangelicals, especially black, were involved in action against apartheid rather like the description of evangelicals in S America in the years of dictatorship, it seems that they came late and few - Wolffe doesn't pick up on this.
95 definition of terms - fundamentalist, charismatic, evangelical, pentecostal - slippery and diverse applications. Indigenisation and cultural specificity very important. Many centres of influence e.g. Word of Life Bible Centre in Uppsala. shows how it cultivates sense of cosmopolitan spirituality while maintaining rootedness in own culture. Example of cosmopolitanism - Lindstrum. Among AICs and black Pentecostals religious organisation an important source of resistance to white racism. . Women more prominent.
Interaction of religion, modernity and postmodernity shows dangers of generalisation. Not enough to describe charismatics as hypermodern , or evangelicals as quintessentially American . Nor to see evangelicals as appealing to traditional subcultural resistance to modernism. Continuing presence in UK and USA and use of innovation suggests more complex picture. Significant factor capacity for change, lack of traditional roots which slows down e.g. Anglican church.
97 sees pentecostals as effective response to modern world and struggle between fundamentalism and pentecostalism for supremacy - rule versus experience.
Current vibrancy of evangelical movement not predicted. 163 entrepreneurs, compared to Patton's tank brigades, can strike anywhere but risk outrunning supply lines. 164 decentralised structure, audience orientation and "willingness to confront strangers" has helped make it adaptable to different social contexts. But not popular among truly wealthy or shapers of American culture - media, education, universities, courts, national government. Billy Graham - stressed personal conversion and importance of holy living, de-emphasised doctrinal and denominational differences in a way, but also simply drew lines somewhere else.
Continuity and change. 165 change away from theological towards relational. 50 years ago battling modernists' attempts to detach Christianity from historical orthodoxy. Now more concerned with worship. Has led in two directions - movement towards liturgical by intellectually inclined and towards charismaticism by average churchgoer. 166 now dispensationalism not so widespread, so more willingness to address social issues. Used to be exclusive and anti-intellectual, now much less so.
p20 - in Europe secularism confronts RC; in S America it is evangelicalism that confronts RC, that "pours into the gaps" but who is not touched? Secularism touches the upper classes, professional and political classes, military
Sees S America as alive, USA and Europe as moribund. I get the impression he's written them off. Missionaries all countries to all countries.
176 description of milieu takes no account of international influence e.g. "democratic irresponsibility".
Timekeeping not important, open expression of emotions, language Spanish, and more important to sound good than to contain truth - possibly accounts for prevalence of impromptu preaching and widespread lack of biblical exposition.
Modernity - danger of TV show mentality, music becomes noise. Buildings - contrast RC tradition and custom, imposing solemnity with evangelical buildings simply as container, place to meet God, purpose built ones characterised by lightness and simplicity, no images or candles. she displays her prejudices quite a lot.
178 Argentina services on Palm Sunday and Easter Day didn't mention crucifixion or resurrection.
Bolivia - AOG a lot of singing and reading and testimony. At another service appeal for money to pay for building, people coming forward in repentance "you haven't changed your religion but rather have found the Lord of Life." - possibly acknowledgement of syncretism
Chile - painting behind the pulpit typical feature of Chilean Pentecostalism. Bible readings, two offerings ? because not enough in the first one?, music simple, typically Chilean. Pastor carefully prepared preaching on several texts.
Ecuador - 3 services to accommodate numbers. Songs and readings. Member of pastoral team said had changed singing content, combining traditional songs with hymns and removing songs with no theological content.
Peru - church associated with AOG - songs and prayers, hour of preaching, long evangelical invitation, offerings.
Prayers for nation rare. Communion not central, Lord's Prayer and Creed not used. 181 praise is a response to the words and music of a song rather than to a fresh contemplation of God in Jesus Christ arising from an understanding of the word. I have already mentioned the dearth of Biblical exposition, a situation that opens the door to "worship" being practised as a "trip", divorced from daily life and national and cultural situations. In one city fire engines raced past outside and pastor said forget what is happening "outside".
Noticed lifestyle did not have "Peruvian idiosyncrasy" - the "little beer" at weekends, respected other people's property/
Evangelicals supported Fujimori 1990, evangelical impact surprising and troubling to many.
Friends whose son turned from drug taking to evangelicalism, now feel they've lost him because he dissociates himself from them.
We don't know if they support soccer teams; we don't know if they are like us.
Must unite with evangelicals - because they are honest they have a task to do in confronting corruption.
Established second half of C20 based on teaching of C13 Nichiren. Will examine role of dynamic individuals and issue of appeal of ancient writings. As it travels it invariably adapts so issue of how global and local characteristics interact.
110 chanting practice established C13. People interested in C13 and in the new, but not the centuries in between. 111 has evangelical strategy (note adaptation of word from Christian context). Lay movement split 1991 from priestly hierarchy therefore can be seen as protestant, and uses the word itself, but note issue of cultural context of word. Based on idea of no need of intermediary between member and truth, can go straight to writings or to object of worship. Seen as new by some but does not regard itself as new, but as teaching only home grown Japanese form of Buddhism. Until 1991 bound up with Nichiren Shoshu, purist and rigorous priestly sect.
113 stress on Nichiren's humble origins emphasises availability to all. Came to believe Japan in degenerate time and people would only be saved by devotion to Lotus Sutra. Seen as nationalist but did not see self so. Died 1282 with only some 200 followers.
119 1939 some 3m Nichiren adherent, of whom only 100,000 Shoshu. Makiguchi creative educationalist with links to Shoshu, died in prison 1944 after refusing to obey state worship. Toda imprisoned with him. Toda released 1945 renamed Soka Kyoiku Gakkai as Soka Gakkai and rebuilt it while also attending to business empire. Vigorous proselytising campaigns. According to Soka Gakkai orthodoxy correct religious practice brings success. Nichiren taught that earthly desires are enlightenment, meaning that enlightenment is to be found in human experience. One aim of Soka Gakkai practice is to reverse negative karma. Not much interested in life beyond this world.
123 Toda died 1958, his young disciple Ikeda took up the reins. Membership just o9ver 1m 1958, 6m by 1969.
124 small group organisation. Twice daily chanting, studying works of Nichiren. Some argue successful because offers certainty, others because native to Japan, because offering success and magical practice.
128 some over aggressive proselytising.
128-9 concern for success, but also peace, ecology.
SG turned attention to entire world; more successful than any other organised movement. It says it's in 163 countries, says no more than 80. 30000 in Europe, 5-7000 in UK. Well over 100000 in US, half in California. 150000 in Brazil.
132 success outside same as inside because of easy, magical practice.
134 broad tensions in modern world betweentraditionalism and modernism, hierarchy and egalitarianism, objective knowledge traditions and subjective understanding, mysticism and rationalism, collective authority and individualism, sacredness and secularism, faith and scepticism
1979 Ikeda resigned under pressure from Shoshu. Shoshu grew in parallel with Soka Gakkai and was financially dependent. Fall out over variety of issues priestly infallibility, SG's involvement in variety of lawsuits. Previously Shoshu provided traditional legitimacy and essential priestly services e.g. death rites - very important for living as well as dead in Japan.
137 tension came to a head early 1990s. SG was excommunicated en masse by Shoshu high priest. Head temple at Taseki-ji, financed by SG, was torn down. Subsequent SG rhetoric militaristic.
138 some priests left Shoshu and continued to provide services to SG. International members much less bothered by split than Japanese because no loyalty to death rites. Adjustment in gobonzon discourse to cope with temporary lack of physical copies.
139 internal justification used now as in past - Nichiren said those who follow true way will suffer persecution.
140 SGI-USA imported largely with Japanese wives of US servicemen. Very gradual move to English speaking society. (George Williams, leader, changed name - is Korean of Japanese descent). say has gone to some lengths to Americanise itself. Shakubuku 1960s to 1978 high rates of recruitment, low rates of retention.
141 BBC documentary 1995 members reported pressure to give money. Such accusations also occur in Japan. says this is easy accusation for media to make, and occurs in many cases. And most people are happy to give, though it may offend some.But the accusations don't occur in most cases. Why is Waterhouse defending SG in the face of evidential accounts?
142 UK early 60s wives of Japanese businessmen accompanying their husbands why not the men? UK national has been in charge since 1975 - Richard Causton till 1995, one of only 20 out of 160 non Japanese country directors currently. 143 survey - many UK members critical of leadership structure, wanted more team approach. After Causton's death, debate between "traditionalists" and "modernisers" was won by "traditionalists" after consultation with Japanese leadership. High representation of entertainment industry - natural affinity to post Christian ethos of SG. Different in US - high representation of corporate people, and slightly older.
145 Brazil. Arrived with immigrants. 1941 241000 Japanese in Brazil, now approx 1.3m of Japanese descent. 20% of SG of Japanese descent; 1967 all were. (Other Japanese NRMs have more adherents.)
Brazil mostly RC with syncretistic elements. Other Japanese NRMs have also syncretised - SG resists this, but has supplied a Buddhist concept of God throws light on evs and pents who don't syncretise - or congregations don't let on - but members still regard karma and the idea of a personal God as incompatible.
Emphasis on SG being easy to learn same can be said of evs and pents, lack of theology means little to learn and little to grapple with
150 they have strategies to account for why expected rewards do not materialise. Not elitist - notably in US where other Buddhist sects are elitist. Global social intervention - humanitarian aid, environmental concern.
Question - is it global or local?
Muhammad did not see self as bringing new religion so much as calling people back to the natural religion to which they are inherently disposed. Followers certainly had determination to spread message. By diplomacy mostly and force rarely But she acknowledges military conquest, garrison towns etc. Doesn't quite add up. he united Arabia and brought order.
161 much conversion by trade and acculturation, of often disgruntled subjects of other religions. says defeated peoples treated not as vanquished but as equals. Jews and Christians treated as protected minorities.
163 now much expansion in west is due to converts - no figures available.
164 Jihad - struggle - internal struggle to bring mind and heart into correspondence with will of God as great as external. Da'wa - has been so used, misused and abused by Muslim and non-Muslim writers and polemicists that in the maze of discussion and counter-discussion, it has lost many of the dimensions of its true meaning. Best understood as invitation or appeal - both individual and collective, encompasses all aspects of life. says Muslim's own life constitutes his final argument. Da'wah not coercive; is directed at Muslims as well as non-Muslims. But outreach is dominant current discourse - but includes social welfare. Careful explanation of jihad and da'wah necessitated by contemporary western (tabloid?) discourse - but she protests too much in some areas
169 different histories and circumstances led to different manifestations. Many movements, some more mission oriented than others. We do not here discuss "Islamism" - wider political movement.
170 History late C17 to early C20 of resisting Christian missionary activity - stronger sense of solidarity and politicised. Common assumption underpinning many movements is that societies not truly Islamic. 172 Also common fear of western influence, though they recognise difference between westernisation and modernisation. highly confrontational attitude to the West, or rather to what is conceived as "Western", is in these movements closely related to their attempts to appropriate modernity and the global system on their own non-Western, often anti-Western, modern assumptions.
says three forms of da'wah organisations - state, state-sponsored TNO, and NGO standard typology for organisations under globalisation. Latter two often more able than state to develop clear independent agenda (obviously). Issue in 1970s when state sponsored TNOs applied concept of da'wah to propagation of specific ideologies and theologies that legitimated Saudi and Libyan states.
173 Muslim Brotherhood, Egypt 1928 - still banned from politics, but government opposition has increased support. Current leadership perceived as aging,hence less violent doesn't work for Osama bin laden, so why for them?. Egypt is training younger leadership but elsewhere young people attracted by other organisations e.g.in UK Jama'at-i-Islam, which has been successful in articulating interests of British youth. Also problem of UK Muslims not speaking Arabic, standard language of Muslim Brotherhood. You could put that the other way round, and say MB's failure to translate itself into other languages.. Jama'at-i-Islam formed 1941 by Indian Mawlana Mawdudi - calls him trailblazer of contemporary Islamic revivalism. Argued modernisation had to be rooted in Islamic revelation. Estab in Pakistan in 1948, and maintains oposition to government. Less concerned with popular appeal than with training elite leadership recruited from middle class and lower middle class.
175 Tablighi Jama'at found by Indian sufi Maulana Muhammad Ilyas with strong emphasis on regenerating minority Muslims. Annual three day conference in Pakistan attracts 1m preachers.
176 Muslim World League - Saudi Arabia 1962.
177 Common theme failure of Islamic movements to devise balance between own ideologies, civil society and state. Much less of a problem for evangelical Christians who simply don't bother with the state.
178-9 confused account of local/global relations. Appears to be saying some organisations founded with local purpose became deterritorialised e.g Leicester's Islamic Foundation which Mawdodi thought important in reversing hostility to Islam in Europe.
179 contemporary Muslim settlement i non-Muslim societies. Approx one third of ummah now in non-Muslim societies. Quran gives no specific guidance on living in non-Muslim countries hence creating challenge. Injunction to stay within dar-al-Islam has created problems for moving out of it - concept has had to be justified. Again not for evangelical Christians, whose justification is contained in the bible itself. says impossible in globalised world to stick to old binary divisions. 182 over time migrant communities have established infrastructure. And have sought to shape interaction with public institutions e.g. schools, hospitals. some degree of Islamicisation of the civic.
183-4 communities different survival strategies in different circumstances.
185 Islamic movements, globalisation and localisation
Islam now faced with world which has powerful centre - USA - which defines different as inferior - simultaneous processes of homogenisation and hegemonistic. Some see Muslim presence in west as critical force for resisting cultural homogenisation and for producing credible intellectual responses to issues of globalisation. Will write in several languages and use English as international language. Range of attitudes from thinking haven't gone far enough to thinking this a sellout to western values.
188 new debates over what is *essentially* Muslim and what is *peripherally* Muslim. Also dynamic interplay with home societies. And varied responses of receiving societies e.g. debates around education in UK and France. no mention of Africa or Asia in these discussions anywhere Electronic ummah, cybertariqa.
189 Muslim world in all its diversity is an actor in the new global environment while I'm certain this is true, I'm not sure that the evidence produced so far actually shows this
Operate entirely within Islam. In Francophone countries called Foi et Practique. Worldwide network, European branches appear to have close ties. Mission journeys to Eastern Europe, Specific ties between UK and Morocco; implication that Tablighi network transcends cultural boundaries. Very cosmopolitan; many use English as international language.
293 link between Tablighi and Deobandi important where Muslim population is of South Asian origin. Most S Asian either Deobandi or Barelvi. To outsiders will play down difference, but can involve antagonism. 294 various differences 295 major difference style of worship Deobandi austere, Barelvi enthusiastic.
296 Deobandi strong among Gujaratis, worldwide trading class.
298 Ilyas created five positive and two negative principles, based on Sufism. Possibly Tablighi's strength lies in being an answer to migrant's need for identity. Simple, democratic, offers instant progress for newly recruited believer. Links via Sufism to N Africa.
301 "Fundamentalism" primarily a western concept - a "coercive label". Tabligh non-fundamentalist in one sense - only concerns private sphere. So does Christian fundamentalism - so the label is being used differently. Tabligh is *modern* - attempts a new construction to fit contemporary needs. Aims for Islamic, modern, cosmopolitan society.
305 West Africa Islam 1000 years but not translated into vernacular; Christianity 100 years, but is translated. For Islam rote memorisation in schools.
309 C3 Copts became Christians, C4 and C5 produced large literature, which enabled them to maintain their religion and identity under Muslim rule C7 onwards. Also Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Use of vernacular the norm in Christian spread through West Africa C19 and C20 - and vehicle for national aspiration.
Complicated expression of an argument which I think says that non-translatability encourages sense of worldwide community while in fact local practices are blended e.g on Yoruba.
314 route via local divination to Muslim conversion e.g. barren woman told her children are refusing to be born except as Muslims.
315 Venn on producing local pastors - Sanneh says undercuts idea of colonialism. I disagree completely - while noting that many oppose Venn's ideas and thought churches should be led by whites - but it was a fundamental practice of colonialism to see to the production of a loyal local elite. Niger delta - American baptists withdrawn at time of US Civil War. Returned in 1870s to find self governing, self propagating and self reliant church. Pulled out after ten years of negotiation. Narrative implies white attempts to dominate, and black secessions. writing in early C20 - acceptance of Christianity was never intended to denationalise any people.. every race of people may profess and practise it and imprint upon it its own native characteristics, giving it a peculiar type among themselves without its losing anything of its virtue.
This is a confusingly expressed piece that doesn't seem to draw to any coherent conclusion. He is exploring the contrast between Islam and Christianity arising from the use/ non-use of the vernacular. He tells some interesting stories but doesn't take them anywhere.
Numerical strength in US. 20% - 30% defines self or can be defined - depending on definition. Entrepreneurial nature in US - self propelled. C19 people saw needs and met them without waiting for approval. De Tocqueville - very democratic and very political though not involved in direct political action.
Palmer on American religion - overstates the Americanism of evangelicalism. Emphasis on conversion, reading bible for oneself, and getting on with doing things without waiting for approval - happens to coincide with US traits.
Strong ethnic diversity - Koreans, Indians, Pakistanis, Hispanics among others. Not historically European.
Is Christian right representative? Republican party owns political evangelicalism. Evangelicals much more politicised but majority is still relatively apolitical, pietist. Politics as secondary to personal witness and local aid. NB not newsworthy, so less visible. NB black churches strongly evangelical and strongly Democrat.
Postmodern? Increasingly look like cultural norms - music, novels, fascination with celebrities, etc. Anticultural elements of fundamentalism have weakened. But many serious counter-cultural movements exist. E.g some don't vote, some don't own TVs.
Weaknesses. Lack of intellectualism, lack of historical perspective, lack of ability to stay with complex problems.